Identify the issue
Understand the Context: Recognize Sexism
- Learn to recognize overt sexism and gender discrimination
- Learn to recognize covert forms of sexism and discrimination commonly referred to as gender microaggressions
“The world has never yet seen a truly great and virtuous nation because in the degradation of women the very fountains of life are poisoned at their source.”
— Lucretia Mott
Some displays of sexism and gender discrimination are easy to identify but hopefully do not occur often to female graduate students. For example, most people would agree that referring to a woman in a derogatory manner or denying her a work opportunity based on gender are examples of sexism and discrimination. Most universities have policies against these behaviors. See Sexual Harassment for more information.
More common forms of sexism and discrimination can be just as harmful, but they are so central to the experience of women and minorities that they often go unnoticed. In fact, sexism may be interpreted as a continuum of attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors that are discriminatory toward women. These can range from implicit biases that are largely unknown to those who possess them, to microaggressions, to expressed sexism, to sexual harassment. Below, you will learn about the variety of ways that sexism presents itself, as well as ways to identify and combat sexism.
Implicit bias occurs when we have attitudes toward a group of people or associate stereotypes with that population that are out of our conscious awareness and control. One common type of implicit bias is the unconscious stereotype that links men with ambition, success, and brilliance; this stereotype is particularly strong in the STEM field (Greenwald & Krieger, 2006).
Three major types of bias impact women in STEM:
- Prove it again bias: women are expected to prove themselves time and time again to gain the same level of respect and recognition that men receive.
- Tightrope bias: A narrow range of behaviors are considered acceptable for women in STEM; this may look like walking a tightrope between “masculine” and “feminine” characteristics.
- Maternal wall bias: Motherhood may trigger negative assumptions about competence and commitment for women in STEM (Williams et al., 2016).
Here are some ways that bias may present itself for women in STEM doctoral programs:
- Many people adhere to stereotypes about what a scientist should look like, associating masculine characteristics with the STEM field. One study revealed that when individuals are shown images of tenure-track STEM faculty members, feminine-presenting women were more likely to be viewed as early childhood educators than as scientists (Banchefsky et al., 2016).
- Implicit gender bias may affect the hiring process of post-doctoral candidates in STEM fields. In one study, faculty members in STEM were given equivalent CVs with traditionally male and female names for a laboratory manager position. Both male and female faculty members rated the female student as less competent and hirable than male candidates (Moss-Racusin et al., 2012).
- Hiring may also be impacted by implicit racial bias. In another study of biology and physics professors, faculty members were shown average CVs using the most common first and last names for various gender and racial groups. Male post-doctoral candidate CVs were evaluated more favorably than women’s. Moreover, Asian and White candidates were rated as more competent than Black candidates and more hirable than both Black and Latinx candidates. Women of Color were rated particularly low in this study, demonstrating the compounding effects of gendered racism (Eaton et al., 2020).
- A meta-analysis of 100+ studies demonstrated significant bias in Student Evaluations of Teaching (SETs) for women faculty, faculty of color, and other marginalized groups. While there is variability across disciplines, these biased evaluations could impact doctoral student teaching assistants (Kreitzer & Sweet-Cushman, 2021).
- Gender bias may come through in letters of recommendation. One study in the fields of chemistry and biochemistry showed that, while positive language was used to describe both male and female candidates, more standout adjectives were used to describe male candidates; men in STEM were described as “the best qualified” and a “rising star” despite equivalent qualifications (Schmader et al., 2007).
It’s important to note that gender biases may go largely unknown to the faculty members or peers who are enacting them. One study showed that male faculty members in STEM negatively evaluate gender bias research, demonstrating a reluctance to recognize sexism in their departments (Handley et al., 2015). Nevertheless, it is important to understand and interrogate the existence of sexism in STEM. Gender bias results in gender gaps in STEM engagement; discrimination results in decreased sense of belonging and increased discomfort within one’s department (Moss-Racusin et al., 2018). See Climate for more details. It can also produce gender gaps in achievement, productivity, and hiring; see Delays and Setbacks.
Because bias is often unconscious, individuals may make hurtful comments or engage in discriminatory behaviors without realizing the impact of their actions. These are called microaggressions: habitual, implicit, discriminatory behaviors. The most harmful aspect of microaggressions is that both the perpetrator and victim usually do not consciously recognize when these behaviors occur. In the context of gendered racism, Women of Color are subjected even more frequently to these incidents (Hayes & Swim, 2013; Wilkins-Yel et al., 2019)). Microaggressions are usually not intentional, but, over time, the confidence-eroding and isolating effects of microaggressions can be very damaging.
Can you think of incidents where, in comparison to men,
- Your contributions were devalued?
- Your ideas were taken less seriously?
- People expected you to do poorly?
- Other people got credit for your ideas?
- You felt like you were treated with condescension?
- You felt excluded socially?
If you answered yes to many of the questions above, you might be experiencing gender-based microaggressions. See Recognize Microaggressions for more information about these acts and the experiences of women with other marginalized identities.
Self-test
- A. A male student disagrees with a female peer.
- B. A female student spends more time with other female students than fellow male students.
- C. A female student is continually excluded from her male classmates’ study sessions.
- D. A female professor chooses not to collaborate with one of her male department members.
Sometimes, sexism may be so covert that it is veiled under attitudes that appear positive on the surface. Benevolent sexism consists of seemingly positive yet condescending attitudes toward women, particularly from those who embrace traditional gender roles. Benevolent sexism may present itself through paternalism (protectiveness toward women); complimentary gender differences (flattering beliefs about women’s morality and sweetness); or heterosexual intimacy (the belief that women rely on men’s love). While these attitudes may be interpreted by some as kind or chivalrous, they ultimately convey negative implicit messages about women. Namely, benevolent sexism implies that women are weaker, more fragile, or less competent than men (Glick & Fiske, 2001; Kuchynka et al., 2018).
The chart below demonstrates the differences between benevolent and hostile sexism:
|
Type of sexism |
Definition |
Examples from the Experiences with Ambivalent Sexism Scale (Kunchynka & Bosson, 2018). Have you ever been |
|
Benevolent sexism |
Expressions or behaviors that seem positive but represent condescending attitudes toward women and have negative implications about their capabilities and characteristics |
treated as if you need more assistance than men do? |
|
treated as if you are weaker than men? |
||
|
treated as if you need a man’s help? |
||
|
treated as if you are more vulnerable than men? |
||
|
treated as if you cannot take care of yourself? |
||
|
treated as if you are a “nice girl”? |
||
|
treated as if you are innocent? |
||
|
treated as if others expected you to be sweet and friendly? |
||
|
treated as if you are more morally pure than men? |
||
|
Hostile sexism |
Overtly negative, angry, or harmful attitudes or behaviors toward women, particularly those who exist in male-dominated spaces |
subjected to offensive comments? |
|
treated in an insulting manner? |
||
|
harassed or threatened? |
||
|
the target of obscene sexual comments or gestures? |
||
|
the target of insulting jokes? |
||
|
accused of using your gender to your advantage? |
||
|
treated in an angry manner? |
Some research indicates that women in STEM are likely to encounter benevolent sexism. Whether sexism is hostile or benevolent, the accumulation of experiences laced with sexism has negative consequences for women’s success in a STEM doctoral program.
Even when members of a disadvantaged or marginalized social group believe their group faces discrimination, they often do not believe they are personally disadvantaged. For example, many women will report that they live in a sexist society but are less likely to believe or recognize that they have personally experienced sexism.
Members of racial minority groups are also less likely to report that they have personally faced discrimination and more likely to report that their racial group is discriminated against as a whole. This finding is referred to as the “denial of personal disadvantage,” or the personal/group discrimination discrepancy. Several explanations have been posed for the denial of personal disadvantage. Some women may view recognizing personal experiences of sexism as acknowledging themselves as victims, which can be damaging to feelings of self-worth (Lindsey et al., 2015).
Even when women recognize that they have experienced sexism or discrimination, they often choose not to confront or report the perpetrator (Becker et al., 2014; Swim & Hyers, 1999). Women are more likely to report sexism if it is overt rather than subtle and when they believe it will ensure their personal safety.
Additionally, women may not report sexism when it happens to others due to fear of backlash or belief that others will step in instead. The latter is known as diffusion of responsibility (Lindsey et al., 2015). Overall, women may be afraid of the social consequences, they might believe that confronting discrimination will not make a significant difference in their experience, or they might not believe that they have the personal resources necessary to successfully confront the perpetrator. Some factors help predict whether a woman will choose to confront sexism, such as:
- An optimistic outlook on life
- Confidence in personal abilities and resources
- Positive appraisals of the consequences of confronting sexism
Microinterventions can be used to intervene and challenge microaggressions. See Recognize Microaggressions for examples of microinterventions. See Sexual Harassment for more information on reporting. Several other CareerWISE Coach modules can help improve your confidence in your personal abilities and resources. For example, see Coping & Self-Efficacy, Build on Your Strengths, How You Think, Keep a Positive Perspective, and Academic Resilience.
Any sexism you face in your doctoral program is not your fault; rather, it is a symptom of systemic bias toward marginalized groups, including women. Therefore, even if you choose not to confront or report sexism that you encounter, you are not in the wrong. It is important to weigh the benefits and consequences of challenging sexism, then make the decision that feels right to you.
When you encounter challenges in your program, you may be tempted to attribute those challenges to your own shortcomings. You may feel like you have to work twice as hard as your male peers to receive the same recognition as men, and this may cause you to question your place in STEM. When you have these experiences, consider what institutional factors could be at play. Reflect on how sexism, racism, or other forms of discrimination may be contributing to your experiences. This may reduce some of the self-blame you feel and allow for increased self-compassion.
Becker, J. C., Zawadzki, M. J., & Shields, S. A. (2014). Confronting and reducing sexism: A call for research on intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 603-614. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12081
Crosby, F. (1984). The denial of personal discrimination. American Behavioral Scientist, 27(3), 375–391. https://doi.org/10.1177/000276484027003008
Eaton, A. A., Saunders, J. F., Jacobson, R. K., & West, K. (2020). How gender and race stereotypes impact the advancement of scholars in STEM: Professors’ biased evaluations of physics and biology post-doctoral candidates. Sex Roles, 82(3), 127-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01052-w
Gervais, S. J., & Vescio, T. K. (2012). The effect of patronizing behavior and control on men and women’s performance in stereotypically masculine domains. Sex Roles, 66(7-8), 479-491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0115-1
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2011). Ambivalent sexism revisited. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(3), 530-535. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311414832
Handley, I. M., Brown, E. R., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Smith, J. L. (2015). Quality of evidence revealing subtle gender biases in science is in the eye of the beholder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1510649112
Hayes, E. R., & Swim, J. K. (2013). African, Asian, Latina/o, and European Americans’ responses to popular measures of sexist beliefs: Some cautionary notes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(2), 155-166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313480044
Kaiser, C. R., & Miller, C. T. (2001). Stop complaining!: The social costs of making attributions to discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(2), 254–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201272010
Kaiser, C. R., & Miller, C.T. (2004). A stress and coping perspective on confronting sexism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(2), 168–178. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00133.x
Keum, B. T., Brady, J. L., Sharma, R., Lu, Y., Kim, Y. H., & Thai, C. J. (2018). Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale for Asian American Women: Development and initial validation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65(5), 571–585. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000305
Kuchynka, S. L., Salomon, K., Bosson, J. K., El-Hout, M., Kiebel, E., Cooperman, C., & Toomey, R. (2018). Hostile and benevolent sexism and college women’s STEM outcomes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 42(1), 72-87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684317741889
LaCosse, J., Sekaquaptewa, D., & Bennett, J. (2016). STEM stereotypic attribution bias among women in an unwelcoming science setting. Contemporary Sexism & Stereotypes, 40(3), 378-397. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316630965
Lindsey, A., King, E., Cheung, H., Hebl, M., Lynch, S., & Mancini, V. (2015). When do women respond against discrimination? Exploring factors of subtlety, form, and focus. Journal of Applied Social Psychology., 45(12), 649–661. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12326
Logel, C., Walton, G. M., Spencer, S. J., Iserman, E. C., von Hippel, W., & Bell, A. E. (2009). Interacting with sexist men triggers social identity threat among female engineers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(6), 1089-1103. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015703
Moss-Racusin, C. A., Dovidio, J. F., Brescoll, V. L., Graham, M. J., & Handelsman, J. (2012). Science faculty's subtle gender biases favor male students. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(41). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1211286109
Oswald, D. L., Baalbaki, M., & Kirkman, M. (2019). Experiences with benevolent sexism: Scale development and associations with women’s well-being. Sex Roles, 80(5), 362-380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0933-5
Stangor, C., Swim, J. K., Van Allen, K. L., & Sechrist, G. B. (2002). Reporting discrimination in public and private contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.69
Swim, J. K., & Hyers, L. L. (1999). Excuse me—What did you just say?!: Women's public and private responses to sexist remarks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 68-88. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1998.1370
Taylor, D. M., Wright, S. C., Moghaddam, F. M., Lalonde, R. N. (1990). The personal/group discrimination discrepancy: Perceiving my group, but not myself, to be a target for discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16(2), 254–262. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290162006
Wilkins-Yel, K., Bekki, J.M., Bernstein, B.L., & Reed, A. (2019). Intersectional perspectives: Interpersonal contributors to moments of doubt for graduate women of color in STEM. Proceedings of the 2019 CoNECD (The Collaborative Network for Engineering and Computing Diversity) Conference. https://peer.asee.org/31774
The pros and cons of being the only woman in a department and the importance of setting boundaries and knowing your own limitations
An alternative way to approach being the only woman in a given situation
Seeking Support Outside the Department
How to refute sexist comments and challenge gendered assumptions
Keep Looking for Faculty Support
The importance of finding the right advisor to support your research goals
Is the Effort Worth the Outcome?
Explains when to confront a problem and when it may be better to maneuver around it
Dealing with Inappropriate Events
Suggestions for how to deal with sexist comments
The first realization that being a woman in science was outside the norm
Being Comfortable as a Woman Among Men
Emphasizes positive peer relationships within her cohort
Observations on Women's Safety (Part 2)
Discusses necessary precautions to take as a female student working late nights on campus
How being unaware of being the only woman was advantageous to program success
Explains that satisfaction comes from working with students and the opportunity to make new disco
Explains that satisfaction comes from working with students and the opportunity to make new disco
The importance of learning from mistakes and persisting despite setbacks.
The importance of learning from your effort, regardless of the outcome.
Advice on how to seek out support in graduate school and how to bounce back from setbacks.
Shares the excitement that comes from collaborating with others to make new discoveries.
Elaborates on the standard practice of science despite cultural differences.
Strategies for negotiating as a faculty member.
When it's time to graduate and when it's important to start learning on the job.
Highlights the transition into graduate level science where the answers aren't known.
The importance of goal setting and using others' experiences to make strong choices about your own p
Advice for balancing research and fun in graduate school.
Advice for students: stay focused, ask questions, and remain open-minded when working with others.
How to adapt experimental methods to match a lifestyle.
How to negotiate a schedule for raising a family and overcoming setbacks in a new career.
The importance of giving yourself credit and remembering why you are doing what you're doing.
The importance of peer relationships and the learning process that takes place despite concrete outc
Working with graduate students is a rewarding aspect of being a faculty member.
Advice for graduate students on how to maintain their confidence, courage, and dignity.
Emphasizes peer relationships and departmental climate.
How to handle being accused of having an affair with the advisor.
Explains an interdisciplinary branch of physics and the passion for research, service, and teaching.
Teaching as the impetus for work.
Discusses necessary precautions to take as a female student working late nights on campus.
Discusses necessary precautions to take as a female student working late nights on campus.
Being accused of cheating and regrets about not being more assertive.
Being accused of cheating and regrets about not being more assertive.
The importance of self-authorship and using graduate school as a process for self-definition.
Reminder that support can be found in unexpected places.
Urges female graduate students to persist in the field of mathematics because the field needs divers
How being unaware of being the only woman was advantageous to program success.
Alternatives to departmental isolation and the importance of networking.
Environmental issues faced in academia.
The importance of first impressions in choosing a graduate program.
Satisfaction comes from interacting with intelligent people across cultures.
Adjusting physical appearance to fit in with peers.
The importance of remembering that graduate school is only one part of a larger career.
Describes an incident of receiving a lower grade than a man for similar work.
The opportunity for freedom, growth, and collaboration as a faculty member.
How to survive the aftermath of a sexual harassment incident.
Highlights the gendered assumptions encountered as a faculty member.
The Importance of Having Positive Working Relationships: A Case Study
An alternative way to approach being the only woman in a given situation.
Contributions to the field are reflected through choices.
The importance of sharing stories of sexual harassment with others to gain support.
The importance of finding the right advisor to support your research goals.
How to handle being accused of having an affair with the advisor.
Explains when to confront a problem and when it may be better to maneuver around it.
How to be upfront, direct, and assertive when confronting instances of sexual harassment.
Highlights the universal customs of science.
Class performance builds confidence to remain in program.
Captures the annoyance of male colleagues making sexist assumptions and the challenges with conferen
The importance of recognizing the progress that has been made by women in science fields.
Advice for accomplishing your academic goals without making unnecessary compromises.
Emphasizes the challenge with saying no, but the importance of learning to do so.
How to make friends with colleagues to encourage a supportive environment.
Underscores the challenges that come from being the only woman in an academic department and gives s
Highlights an experience in which peers were not only colleagues, but also friends.
How the physical space in a laboratory allowed for collaboration among colleagues.
The importance of a good leader in setting standards for diversity, climate, and tenure policies.
How to observe others' reactions to subtle comments in order to gauge an appropriate response.
Urges students not to get wrapped into issues that do not directly involve them.
Departmental reactions to the choice to have children.
How to refute sexist comments and challenge gendered assumptions.
The importance of sharing stories of sexual harassment with others and realizing that you are not al
Confronting a male colleague with contradictory findings at a conference.
How colleagues can assist in making the transition into graduate life easier by sharing information
Captures the small but noticeable annoyances that come with being the only woman.
The importance of picking your battles to avoid unfair labeling.
Reminder that it is not necessary to feel comfortable socially to do good science.
Gender stereotypes faced in getting into graduate school and conducting research.
How to seek support from administrators outside the department when dealing with departmental sexism
The first realization that being a woman in science was outside the norm.
Challenges of being international and female, particularly with regards to an academic career and th
Suggestions for how to deal with sexist comments.
Playing a variety of roles as the only woman in the department.
The process of establishing yourself in the same department as your spouse.
Emphasizes positive peer relationships within her cohort.
The challenges of working in male-dominated academic environments and the negative stereotypes assoc
The feasibility of pursuing a family and science.
The importance of hearing other people's stories.
The importance of understanding priorities and allocating resources accordingly.
Advises how to keep family informed about research goals and progression from student to faculty mem
Explains some of the setbacks in dating relationships.
Advises students to continue to pursue their education because the payoff is self-respect.
The importance of believing in yourself, admitting your mistakes, and continuing to do what you love
How to accept non-traditional relationships and lifestyles in academia.
Notes the challenges of a dual career marriage and the obstacles in fighting for tenure and balancin
The process of overcoming setbacks related to career options and personal relationships.
How to balance motherhood responsibilities in graduate school.
The importance of supportive peer relationships.
Being married in graduate school and having children as a faculty member.
Advisor's experiences encourage well-informed career decisions.
The importance of a supportive network of colleagues.
Doing something useful to make a difference and how to appreciate a happy, supportive work environme
Taking time off before pursuing her PhD.
How a supportive department and a modified teaching schedule allowed for maternity leave.
How to sustain taking time off and pursuing the PhD later in life.
Advises how to keep family informed about research goals and progression from student to faculty mem
The importance of a supportive extended family in helping to balance school and children.
The importance of having a number of things in your life that bring you joy and satisfaction.
Understanding your strengths and weaknesses, but ultimately giving yourself recognition for your suc
The importance of learning over time and remaining positive in the face of criticism.
Motivation for doing work: interacting with students and doing research that can make a difference i
Emphasizes the challenge with saying no, but the importance of learning to do so.
The importance of remaining passionate and remembering that the PhD opens doors.
The importance of defining clear goals, remaining self-confident, and learning to say no.
The importance of allowing yourself the opportunity to change your mind and reconsider your goals.
The importance of knowing what you want and expecting tradeoffs on the path to get it.
Making discoveries and collaborating with others brings satisfaction.
Creating a schedule and meeting an advisor's expectations.
Advises graduate students to take a semester off if they choose to have a child because it is too ch
Explains the role children play in career choices.
Using leisure activities to relieve stress and build friendships.
The satisfaction that comes from working with colleagues and interacting with others.
The decision to get married in graduate school.
The importance of maintaining a balanced lifestyle to alleviate stress.
Addresses personal relationship sacrifices.
The importance of nurturing relationships outside of academia.
Explains the choice to have children in graduate school.
Challenges with being married to a fellow academician and finding faculty positions.
How a flexible schedule as a professor made it possible to have a family and a career.
The importance of evaluating your priorities to create balance and happiness.
Appreciation for advisor's assistance in transitioning to the US.
Emphasizes the joy in working with others and giving back to society.
Chronicles the evolution of a career over time.
Suggestions for how to increase women's participation in science with an emphasis on policy change.
The importance of being open and honest with your advisor.
How a positive advisor challenged his students to think for themselves.
Highlights the obstacles faced when trying to have research reviewed by the advisor and emphasizes t
The importance of having a variety of mentors throughout your graduate experience.
Challenges faced with establishing yourself as an independent researcher separate from an influentia
The importance of asking questions and searching for creative solutions to new problems.
The importance of finding a good advisor and making sure to get everything in writing.
Challenges in confronting the advisor with news of pregnancy.
Experiences with an international advisor.
How to maintain good relationships with colleagues while being motivated to finish the program qu
The importance of giving back to students and making an impact in their future education and care
An Arizona State University project, supported by the National Science Foundation under grants 0634519, 0910384 and 1761278
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. © 2021 CareerWISE. All rights reserved. Privacy | Legal
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