Identify the issue
Understand Yourself: Stereotype Threat
- Learn what stereotype threat means and how to prevent it from hurting your success as a graduate student.
“The lack of diversity in the classroom does NOT make me the voice of all women.”
“I was once told, ‘Oh, women can’t do engineering’ just before an exam, which I ended up doing pretty badly in. This is a perfect example of stereotype threat in action.”
“The problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they are incomplete. They make one story become the only story.” - Chimamanda Adichie, feminist author
“I have to go through so much to prove my intellectual abilities!”
Do you ever feel that you represent all women? Have you ever found yourself saying something stupid even though you are trying hard not to? Have you found yourself worrying that if you mess up, you will be letting other women down? Do you feel driven to get the “A” to prove that being a racial minority woman does not equate with underachievement?
Stereotype threat is a concept originated by Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson in the 1990s. According to stereotype threat, when individuals feel threatened by a task due to stereotypes about their group membership, they experience performance anxiety and, accordingly, perform worse on that task. Said differently, stereotype threat occurs when an individual is faced with an opportunity to confirm or disconfirm a negative stereotype about their group.
Stereotype threat is a situational phenomenon where the individual senses they will be judged by negative stereotypes about their group rather than their own performance. Being a member of a stigmatized group in a threatening academic environment raises the likelihood of experiencing self-doubt, heightening your sensitivity to mistakes, and interfering with your cognitive ability to focus on goal-relevant tasks.
Many studies have demonstrated experimentally (usually with undergraduate student volunteers) how racial/ethnically diverse people and women are affected by stereotype threat in educational environments. For example:
- When a group of African-Americans were told that a task measured intellectual ability, they performed worse than White Americans who received the same instruction and worse than African-Americans and White Americans who were asked to perform the same task and were not told that the task measured ability.
- When gender identity is primed or made salient, women’s math performance is lower.
- The effects of stereotype threat might depend on the type of one’s identity that is most salient at a particular time. For example, Asian American women performed well on a test of quantitative ability when their race/ethnicity was made salient but performed worse overall when their gender was made salient.
- When identity group members who are not the target of a negative stereotype (e.g., men, White students) are told their group is superior to others on a task (like math performance), they do better than a stereotyped group and better than in non-stereotyped conditions. This phenomenon is called stereotype lift.
- Women more aware of gender stigma are likely to reject their gender identity, which in turn results in negative perceptions of campus climate. Negative perceptions of campus climate predict greater experiences of stereotype threat, which predict greater academic disengagement, which in turn predicts lower self-esteem.
- Stereotype threat effects can be stronger when you are the only one or one of a few in a setting. Women’s performance in male-dominated settings (engineering and math in particular) is often impacted negatively by stereotype threat.
- In educational environments where women are already negatively stereotyped (e.g., engineering), interacting with a sexist man (i.e., behaving in a dominant and sexually interested way) undermines women’s performance on engineering tests.
Success in graduate school depends on performance and perceived ability. As a woman in a STEM field, you are likely aware of the stereotype that women are less able to do the work of science and math than men. That does not necessarily mean, however, that you have recognized how the academic environment influences situational performance.
If you are unaware of the effects of stereotype threat and do not understand where performance anxiety is coming from, your confidence might take a hit. This lowered confidence can have consequences for your motivation and future performance. For more, see Coping and Self-Efficacy.
Self-test
True or False? Being a woman in a male-dominated field can potentially have a negative affect on academic performance.
- A. True
- B. False
Alexis and Carolina are both 2nd year students in computer engineering. They work in the same lab and share the same advisor. Alexis and Carolina have a similar dream of acquiring a tenure-track faculty position on the West Coast. The pair work around the clock but still face stereotypes about their racial group as it pertains to their intellect and ability to be in their programs.
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ALEXIS: |
CAROLINA: |
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Stereotype Threat Alexis believes that she is not good at standardized testing because she has done poorly on tests in the past. Plus, she knows that research says Black students perform worse than their White counterparts on standardized tests. |
Stereotype Threat Carolina is the only Latina in her program and the only woman in her math class. Carolina sits in the back of the class and rarely participates because she does not want to answer incorrectly. Carolina often notices that she freezes when asked to participate, despite knowing the correct answer. |
|
Effects When Alexis becomes aware of testing stereotypes, she performs poorly, which has impacted how she views herself as well as how she performs on exams in her program. |
Effects The stereotypes Carolina faces in her program and class have taken a toll on her desire to speak up in class out of fear she will make herself and other women of color look bad if she is ever wrong. |
The good news is that knowing about stereotype threat can actually reduce its detrimental effects. In this case, knowing is half the battle.
If you are able to recognize that your anxiety is related to stereotype threat (as opposed to a lack of ability), you might be able to reduce the anxiety and the negative effects of stereotype threat.
In addition to keeping the concept of stereotype threat in mind, try these other strategies:
- Work on having a growth mindset (Dweck, 2008). Even when you think your performance was not ideal, remember “growth mindset,” the idea that intelligence is not fixed but can change and grow incrementally, with practice and “exercise.” Also see How You Think.
- Cultivate your sense of belonging. Academic struggle is common and does not mean you don’t “belong” in your STEM program. Talk with other women for mutual support.
- Seek mentorship. If you are experiencing anxiety related to your fear of confirming a stereotype, talk to a mentor who may have had similar challenges (see What You Want in a Mentor).
- Remember your goals. While racial and gender stereotypes are powerful, they are not deterministic, so always remember your WHY (see Career Goals)
- Practice your positive self-talk. (See Increase Positive Self-Talk)
Compose a letter to a future student about a time when you experienced performance anxiety on a task where diverse women are stereotyped negatively. This act of writing your own narrative about performance struggles and perseverance can help you become more aware of how stereotypes affect you and internalize the message that academic struggle is common.
If you send the letter to a student, you will also be helping a peer and building a sense of community.
Block, C. (2019). Inside the prism of an invisible threat: Shining a light on the hidden work of contending with systemic stereotype threat in STEM fields. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 113, 33–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.09.007
Cadaret, H. (2017). Stereotype threat as a barrier to women entering engineering careers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 99, 40–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.12.002
Casad, P. (2018). A model of threatening academic environments predicts women STEM majors’ self-esteem and engagement in STEM. Sex Roles, 80(7-8), 469–488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0942-4
Deemer, T. (2014). Feeling the threat: Stereotype threat as a contextual barrier to women’s science career choice intentions. Journal of Career Development, 41(2), 141–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845313483003
Doyle, R. A., & Voyer, D. (2016). Stereotype manipulation effects on math and spatial test performance: A meta-analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 47, 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.12.018
Dweck, C. S. (2008). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House Digital, Inc..
Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A.. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science, 16(3), 175–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00799.x
McGee, E. (2018). “Black Genius, Asian Fail”: The detriment of stereotype lift and stereotype threat in high-achieving asian and Black STEM students. AERA Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858418816658
McGee, E. & Martin, D. (2011). “You would not believe what i have to go through to prove my intellectual value!” Stereotype management among academically successful Black mathematics and engineering students. American Educational Research Journal, 48(6), 1347–1389. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831211423972
Ong, M., Smith, J., & Ko, L.T. (2018). Counterspaces for women of color in STEM higher education: Marginal and central spaces for persistence and success. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 55, 206-245. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21417
Pennington, C. R., Heim, D., Levy, A.R., & Larkin, D.T. (2016) Twenty years of stereotype threat research: A review of psychological mediators. PLoS ONE 11(1): e0146487. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146487
Schuster, C., Schuster, C., Martiny, S., & Martiny, S. (2017). Not feeling good in STEM: Effects of stereotype activation and anticipated affect on women’s career aspirations. Sex Roles, 76(1), 40–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0665-3
Schmader, T. (2010). Stereotype threat deconstructed. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(1), 14–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721409359292
Steele, C. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. The American Psychologist, 52(6), 613–629. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613
Steele, C., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
Yeager, D., & Dweck, C. (2020). What can be learned from growth mindset controversies? The American Psychologist, 75(9), 1269–1284. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000794
Dealing with Inappropriate Events
Suggestions for how to deal with sexist comments
Observations on Women's Safety (Part 1)
Discusses necessary precautions to take as a female student working late nights on campus
Paths of Family Planning and Different Options Along the Way
How a flexible schedule as a professor made it possible to have a family and a career
The Importance of Sharing Stories
The importance of hearing other people's stories
The first realization that being a woman in science was outside the norm
The importance of sharing stories of sexual harassment with others and realizing that you are not alone
On Speaking Up: A Conference Experience
Confronting a male colleague with contradictory findings at a conference
Stressors, Sex, and Sexism: A Wrongfully Assumed Affair
How to handle being accused of having an affair with the advisor
The Residual Effects of Sexual Harassment
How to survive the aftermath of a sexual harassment incident
Dealing with Assumptions and Accusations (Short Version)
Being accused of cheating and regrets about not being more assertive
“Once you label me you negate me.”
Søren Kierkegaard
Explains that satisfaction comes from working with students and the opportunity to make new disco
Explains that satisfaction comes from working with students and the opportunity to make new disco
The importance of learning from mistakes and persisting despite setbacks.
The importance of learning from your effort, regardless of the outcome.
Advice on how to seek out support in graduate school and how to bounce back from setbacks.
Shares the excitement that comes from collaborating with others to make new discoveries.
Elaborates on the standard practice of science despite cultural differences.
Strategies for negotiating as a faculty member.
When it's time to graduate and when it's important to start learning on the job.
Highlights the transition into graduate level science where the answers aren't known.
The importance of goal setting and using others' experiences to make strong choices about your own p
Advice for balancing research and fun in graduate school.
Advice for students: stay focused, ask questions, and remain open-minded when working with others.
How to adapt experimental methods to match a lifestyle.
How to negotiate a schedule for raising a family and overcoming setbacks in a new career.
The importance of giving yourself credit and remembering why you are doing what you're doing.
The importance of peer relationships and the learning process that takes place despite concrete outc
Working with graduate students is a rewarding aspect of being a faculty member.
Advice for graduate students on how to maintain their confidence, courage, and dignity.
Emphasizes peer relationships and departmental climate.
How to handle being accused of having an affair with the advisor.
Explains an interdisciplinary branch of physics and the passion for research, service, and teaching.
Teaching as the impetus for work.
Discusses necessary precautions to take as a female student working late nights on campus.
Discusses necessary precautions to take as a female student working late nights on campus.
Being accused of cheating and regrets about not being more assertive.
Being accused of cheating and regrets about not being more assertive.
The importance of self-authorship and using graduate school as a process for self-definition.
Reminder that support can be found in unexpected places.
Urges female graduate students to persist in the field of mathematics because the field needs divers
How being unaware of being the only woman was advantageous to program success.
Alternatives to departmental isolation and the importance of networking.
Environmental issues faced in academia.
The importance of first impressions in choosing a graduate program.
Satisfaction comes from interacting with intelligent people across cultures.
Adjusting physical appearance to fit in with peers.
The importance of remembering that graduate school is only one part of a larger career.
Describes an incident of receiving a lower grade than a man for similar work.
The opportunity for freedom, growth, and collaboration as a faculty member.
How to survive the aftermath of a sexual harassment incident.
Highlights the gendered assumptions encountered as a faculty member.
The Importance of Having Positive Working Relationships: A Case Study
An alternative way to approach being the only woman in a given situation.
Contributions to the field are reflected through choices.
The importance of sharing stories of sexual harassment with others to gain support.
The importance of finding the right advisor to support your research goals.
How to handle being accused of having an affair with the advisor.
Explains when to confront a problem and when it may be better to maneuver around it.
How to be upfront, direct, and assertive when confronting instances of sexual harassment.
Highlights the universal customs of science.
Class performance builds confidence to remain in program.
Captures the annoyance of male colleagues making sexist assumptions and the challenges with conferen
The importance of recognizing the progress that has been made by women in science fields.
Advice for accomplishing your academic goals without making unnecessary compromises.
Emphasizes the challenge with saying no, but the importance of learning to do so.
How to make friends with colleagues to encourage a supportive environment.
Underscores the challenges that come from being the only woman in an academic department and gives s
Highlights an experience in which peers were not only colleagues, but also friends.
How the physical space in a laboratory allowed for collaboration among colleagues.
The importance of a good leader in setting standards for diversity, climate, and tenure policies.
How to observe others' reactions to subtle comments in order to gauge an appropriate response.
Urges students not to get wrapped into issues that do not directly involve them.
Departmental reactions to the choice to have children.
How to refute sexist comments and challenge gendered assumptions.
The importance of sharing stories of sexual harassment with others and realizing that you are not al
Confronting a male colleague with contradictory findings at a conference.
How colleagues can assist in making the transition into graduate life easier by sharing information
Captures the small but noticeable annoyances that come with being the only woman.
The importance of picking your battles to avoid unfair labeling.
Reminder that it is not necessary to feel comfortable socially to do good science.
Gender stereotypes faced in getting into graduate school and conducting research.
How to seek support from administrators outside the department when dealing with departmental sexism
The first realization that being a woman in science was outside the norm.
Challenges of being international and female, particularly with regards to an academic career and th
Suggestions for how to deal with sexist comments.
Playing a variety of roles as the only woman in the department.
The process of establishing yourself in the same department as your spouse.
Emphasizes positive peer relationships within her cohort.
The challenges of working in male-dominated academic environments and the negative stereotypes assoc
The feasibility of pursuing a family and science.
The importance of hearing other people's stories.
The importance of understanding priorities and allocating resources accordingly.
Advises how to keep family informed about research goals and progression from student to faculty mem
Explains some of the setbacks in dating relationships.
Advises students to continue to pursue their education because the payoff is self-respect.
The importance of believing in yourself, admitting your mistakes, and continuing to do what you love
How to accept non-traditional relationships and lifestyles in academia.
Notes the challenges of a dual career marriage and the obstacles in fighting for tenure and balancin
The process of overcoming setbacks related to career options and personal relationships.
How to balance motherhood responsibilities in graduate school.
The importance of supportive peer relationships.
Being married in graduate school and having children as a faculty member.
Advisor's experiences encourage well-informed career decisions.
The importance of a supportive network of colleagues.
Doing something useful to make a difference and how to appreciate a happy, supportive work environme
Taking time off before pursuing her PhD.
How a supportive department and a modified teaching schedule allowed for maternity leave.
How to sustain taking time off and pursuing the PhD later in life.
Advises how to keep family informed about research goals and progression from student to faculty mem
The importance of a supportive extended family in helping to balance school and children.
The importance of having a number of things in your life that bring you joy and satisfaction.
Understanding your strengths and weaknesses, but ultimately giving yourself recognition for your suc
The importance of learning over time and remaining positive in the face of criticism.
Motivation for doing work: interacting with students and doing research that can make a difference i
Emphasizes the challenge with saying no, but the importance of learning to do so.
The importance of remaining passionate and remembering that the PhD opens doors.
The importance of defining clear goals, remaining self-confident, and learning to say no.
The importance of allowing yourself the opportunity to change your mind and reconsider your goals.
The importance of knowing what you want and expecting tradeoffs on the path to get it.
Making discoveries and collaborating with others brings satisfaction.
Creating a schedule and meeting an advisor's expectations.
Advises graduate students to take a semester off if they choose to have a child because it is too ch
Explains the role children play in career choices.
Using leisure activities to relieve stress and build friendships.
The satisfaction that comes from working with colleagues and interacting with others.
The decision to get married in graduate school.
The importance of maintaining a balanced lifestyle to alleviate stress.
Addresses personal relationship sacrifices.
The importance of nurturing relationships outside of academia.
Explains the choice to have children in graduate school.
Challenges with being married to a fellow academician and finding faculty positions.
How a flexible schedule as a professor made it possible to have a family and a career.
The importance of evaluating your priorities to create balance and happiness.
Appreciation for advisor's assistance in transitioning to the US.
Emphasizes the joy in working with others and giving back to society.
Chronicles the evolution of a career over time.
Suggestions for how to increase women's participation in science with an emphasis on policy change.
The importance of being open and honest with your advisor.
How a positive advisor challenged his students to think for themselves.
Highlights the obstacles faced when trying to have research reviewed by the advisor and emphasizes t
The importance of having a variety of mentors throughout your graduate experience.
Challenges faced with establishing yourself as an independent researcher separate from an influentia
The importance of asking questions and searching for creative solutions to new problems.
The importance of finding a good advisor and making sure to get everything in writing.
Challenges in confronting the advisor with news of pregnancy.
Experiences with an international advisor.
How to maintain good relationships with colleagues while being motivated to finish the program qu
The importance of giving back to students and making an impact in their future education and care
An Arizona State University project, supported by the National Science Foundation under grants 0634519, 0910384 and 1761278
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. © 2021 CareerWISE. All rights reserved. Privacy | Legal
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